Definition:

1. The middle course between two extremes.

References:

1. Socrates applied the idea of the golden mean to education - arguing that exclusively working on specific skills makes one unbalanced. For example, gymnastics could breed hardness and strength, music could breed softness. Combining the two is optimal.

Examples:

1. Courage (virtue) lies between the extremes of recklessness (excess courage) and cowardice (a deficiency of courage).

Insights:

1. The concept of balance and harmony suggested in the concept of the golden mean is found in a number of philosophies. Buddhism: the 'middle way' is between sensual luxury and self mortification.
2. Aristotle's golden mean provides a guide to virtue: "Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in the mean which is defined by reference to reason. It is a mean between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency."
3. The golden mean requires that the virtuous person responds to the right degree depending on the situation.

Insights:

1. Operant conditioning seeks to alter voluntary behaviour by means of rewards and punishments, a process called reinforcement.
2. Operant conditioning is used by some psychiatrists to treat humans with behavioural disorders.

References:

1. B.F. Skinner: developed the principles of operant conditioning through stimulus using the "Skinner Box" to teach simple actions to animals like rats and pigeons.

Biography:

1. Founded stoicism around 300BCE. Taught in the 'Stoa Poikile' (painted porch), which is where stoicism derives its name. Influenced by the Cynics. Teachings placed emphasis on wisdom and virtue.