The History of Philosophy

• Definition: An attack on a person rather than their argument.

• Definition: Peace of mind, tranquillity.
• Insight: Achieving ataraxia as a philosophical goal came to prominence during the insecurity of Hellenic times, and the loss of autonomy under the empires or Alexander and Rome. The need felt by people to find security and stability within themselves whilst the world around the was uncertain.
• Insight: Ataraxia is achieved through understanding the true nature of the world, and living in conformity with that.
• Reference: For Epicurus the main goal of philosophy is to help people understand what the best kind of life is and achieve ataraxia.
• Reference: The sceptical movement Pyrrhonism was concerned with attaining ataraxia - peace of mind or tranquillity.

Biography: Born a slave in Phrygia. Epictetus means 'bought' or 'owned'. Taken to Rome in early life, his owner allowed him to study philosophy with stoic Musonius Rufus. Gained his freedom and became a teacher. In 93 CE Roman emperor Domitian banished philosophers in Rome and Epictetus moved to Nicopolis in Greece.

Biography: Epictetus did not write anything but his teachings were written by his student Arrian which became 'Discourses', and 'Enchiridion'.

Insight: Stoicism, as practiced by Epictetus was almost exclusively devoted to the question of how to live.

Insight: Epictetus taught philosophy, Seneca published, Marcus Aurelius wrote to himself.

Insight: Self-knowledge and self-mastery were key ideas of Epictetus.

Insight: Epictetus argued that good within ourselves is to found through the distinction between what is within our control and what is outside our control.

Insight: Our use of reasoning and the freedom to choose allow us to evaluate what is in or outside our control and act accordingly.

Insight: Acceptance of inevitability is freedom.

Principle: Act on what you can control, let everything else go.

"Ask not that events should happen as you will, but let your will be that events should happen as they do, and you shall be at peace... Behave in life as you would at a banquet. A dish is handed round and comes to you; put out your hand and take politely. It passes you; do not stop it. It has not reached you; do not be impatient to get it, but wait until your turn comes... Remember that foul words and blows are no outrage in themselves; it is your judgment that they are so that makes them so. When anyone makes you angry, it is your own thought that has angered you. Therefore make sure not to let your impressions carry you away."

- Epictetus

• Definition: (1) Life involves suffering; (2) suffering arises from desire and ignorance; (3) suffering can be escaped; (4) one can be liberated from suffering by living an ethical life and by meditation.
• Insight: Buddhist doctrine centres around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold path.
• Insight: Buddhism is not a religion but a philosophy.
• Insight: The Eightfold Path is: right vision (understanding), right emotion, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right meditation.

• Definition: "I am because we are."
• Insight: Prominent in southern Africa, with emphasis on the essential nature of our shared humanity and connectedness.
• Insight: Definition of human moral existence in terms of mutuality - that humanity is defined by the interconnectedness of all people to one another.
• Insight: The ideas captured by Ubuntu include kindness, goodness, generosity, friendliness, compassion, caring, reciprocity.
• Insight: Ubuntu frames virtues of generosity, kindness through active positivity rather than negative alternatives such as 'do no harm.'
• Insight: To be described as Ubuntu is to have the character and characteristics of positive ethics.
• Insight: The philosophy of ubuntu describes that as social animals who need one another we should live by this fact.
• Reference: Jordan Kush Ngubane, 1950s wrote about ubuntu.
• Reference: Archbishop Desmond Tutu - spoke about ubuntu at the end of apartheid in South Africa.

• Bio: Zeno of Citium was highly influenced by the Cynics. Came from Citium on the island of Cyprus, born in 334BCE. He was a merchant, but then decided to study philosophy. Became the student of Crates. Valued civic duty - having responsibilities in society. Set up his own school in the painted colonnade, or 'stoa poikile' of the Athenian agora. His student Cleanthes succeeded him as head of the school when he died in 262BCE.
• Insight: Zeno taught the internalisation of the cynic virtues of self-mastery, and 'apatheia' or indifference to fortune, and facts of life such as ageing, illness, and death.